The Plantagenets: The Warrior Kings and Queens Who Made England

In 1204, Eleanor died, destabilizing England’s connection to Aquitaine. 1204-5 saw a harsh winter, the continued disintegration of John’s territories and alliances on the continent, and fears of a French invasion. John raised revenue and amassed a fleet aiming to reconquer Normandy, but his barons refused to cooperate. Most had lost their Anglo-Norman identity, or, like Marshal, were reluctant to fight for the weaker of their vassal lords.

Despite minor continental gains in his 1206 campaign, John was confined to England, where he roamed and took a close interest in justice. Where his predecessors had exploited the vast territories’ resources for defense, John had only the resources of England to reconquer them. He used tax structures that set a precedent for centuries to come. He also exploited the justice system and the king’s feudal rights, often against his magnates’ interests.

From 1208, John tightened his grip on his remaining territories. He subjugated Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. He persecuted England’s Jewish population for their wealth. He crushed barons who tried to resist his punitive financial demands, such as the Briouze family. In the conflict over appointment rights, the pope placed an interdiction on the country and excommunicated John; John exploited this to seize clerical property and income.