The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution

First published in 1938, C.L.R. James’s The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution examines the Haitian Revolution of 1791 to 1804, with emphasis on the role of slave-turned-commander Toussaint L’Ouverture. As a historical treatise, the book aims to unfold the inner workings of the Revolution, with the socialist views of the author, a Trinidadian historian, framing the analysis. Readers have come to recognize The Black Jacobins as not only a crucial exploration of the Haitian Revolution but also as a seminal work within the literature of the African diaspora. Citations in this guide correspond to the revised second edition published in 1963 and reprinted by Vintage Books in 1989.

In the first few chapters, James outlines conditions in the French Caribbean colony of San Domingo prior to the Revolution. Slaves captured from Africa were treated like animals and forced to work on sugar plantations. Plantation owners, merchants, and French officials competed for a share of the profits. Individuals of mixed African and European ancestry formed an intermediate class.

James then considers the events leading up to the slave rebellion. News of the French Revolution in 1789 sent shockwaves through San Domingo, where notions of liberty and equality were complicated by the racial prejudices that coexisted with slavery. Mixed-race individuals began to lobby for equal political rights. Black slaves began to rebel in small numbers.

In France, liberal politicians led by Robespierre and the political group The Mountain declared the abolition of slavery. In response, Blacks in San Domingo under the charismatic military genius Toussaint L’Ouverture helped French forces to repel attacks from England and Spain over the next several years. They also suppressed efforts by a mixed-race coalition and White planters to seize control of the island.

For a while, it seemed that Toussaint would be free to establish a new, more just society. When reactionary forces came to power in France, they plotted to restore slavery. In 1801, French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte dispatched a large expedition to the colony, instructing them to gradually reinstate slavery. After another brilliant military campaign, Toussaint was arrested and sent to France, where he died in prison. Following Toussaint’s departure, Jean-Jacques Dessalines led the slave rebellion in a successful campaign. Weakened by sickness and unable to defeat the revolutionary forces, the French admitted defeat in 1803 and abandoned the island. A new nation was born.

Throughout the book, James discusses the Haitian Revolution as a practical example of Marxist principles. Much of his analysis centers on the character of Toussaint as a revolutionary leader, including his flaws. Thematically, James is also interested in Pan-Africanism and Negritude.

Since 1938, when The Black Jacobins was published, discourse about race has evolved in significant ways. Terms such as “Mulatto” that were in frequent use then have now fallen out of favor and are sometimes considered offensive. This guide preserves that language as it was used in the author’s historical context.